Welcome to my blog

Having completed my research and a research paper on the topic of infanticide in Early modern England, there are quite a few things that I've learned. There are also quite a few resources that are listed throughout this blog so that anyone interested in this topic will be able to find them and review them. Hopefully this blog site will provide some helpful information for future researchers. Overall the most interesting things that I've learned throughout my research relate to some of the more unfortunate stereotypes surrounding women of the period and some of the obstacles that they might have faced.

Women who were not wealthy often worked as servants in other households before getting married and the age of marriage for most girls of this class was relatively late compared to common thought. Most servant women married around the age of twenty-six. I also learned that female servants were extremely vulnerable to sexual advances from their masters. The fact that the stereotypes of the period categorized women as either sexualized and wanton or chaste and virginal demonstrates how community members relied solely on reputation to determine the true value of the average early modern woman. This period in history also reflected an extreme reliance on the family unit as a parallel to the government. Therefore servants belonged to their masters and wives belonged to their husbands. The husband was the king of the house and was not to be defied. Women who stepped out of line in any way were portrayed as monstous and unnatural. Women who defied their husbands were shrews, homerebels, or housetraitors. Women who could not be categorized or who lacked domestic rule were often portrayed as witches, and women who became sexualized within society were characterized as whores.

One of the most interesting aspects of this type of thought process relates to the topic of infanticide. If a woman was raped by her master and could not prove rape, she would be labeled as a whore, especially if her pregancy was discovered. This would ruin her reputation and her marriage potential, and cause her to become an outcast within the community. Few people would want to associate with a woman who had such a reputation. At the same time, if a woman in this position were to try to conceal her pregnancy and was discovered, she could face charges of infanticide under the Act of 1627, because the law associated concealment of pregnancy with the intent to murder the baby. Regardless of how she became pregnant, an unwed mother was condemned to some type of punishment. This is by far the most interesting aspect of infanticide as far as I'm concerned.

Another interesting aspect of my research is the treatment of married women. At the beginning of the semester I addressed this issue and found that there were no laws to protect married women from the wrath of their husbands unless they were actually murdered. The church and community were meant to handle this aspect of marriage and they only intervened when the beatings or altercations became a public nuisance. Most often church or community involvement resulted in shaming rituals which were used to embarrass and punish the guilty party. Pamphlets from the period addressed issues such as infanticide, petty treason, and petty tyranny. Petty treason was the charge that murderous wives faced and this charge resulted in the same punishment as high treason; both resulted in the execution of the guilty party. This yet again demonstrates the parallel between the hierarchy of the home and the hieracrchy of the government. Petty tyrrany was the charge that murderous husbands faced, and this charge is comparable to a simple murder charge. All of these facts help to reveal the truth about how women were oppressed, stereotyped, and kept in place by early modern society.

Another extremely interesting aspect of my research reveals the fact that unwed mothers and married women were characterized differently even after committing the same crime. The motive for infanticide committed by an unwed woman was universally accepted as an effort to hide her shame. On the other hand, married women who committed infanticide were thought to be controlled by the devil or corrupted in some way. This reflects the views of unwed mothers during the period. It was assumed that unwed mothers were sexually promiscuous deviants.

Hopefully some of the resources listed below will be helpful to those who find this blog interesting.

"A True and Perfect Relation of a most Horrid and Bloody Murther"
Anon
London: 1686
EEBO (Early English Books Online)

"A Pittilesse Mother"
Anon
London: 1616
EEBO (Early English Books Online)

"The Murderous Midwife, with her Roasted Punishment"
Anon
London: 1673
EEBO (Early English Books Online)

"Deeds against Nature and monsters by kinde"
Anon
EEBO (Early English Books Online)

Amussen, Susan Dwyer. “Elizabeth I and Alice Balstone: Gender, Class, and the ExceptionalWoman in Early Modern England.” Attending to Women in Early Modern England. Ed. Betty S. Travitsky and Adele F. Seef. Newark, NJ: U of Delaware P., 1994.

Bothelo, Keith M. "Maternal Memory and Murder in Early-Seventeenth Century England."SEL Studies in English Literature 1500-1900. 48.1 (2008). 113-130. Project Muse. http://muse.jhu.edu/

Dolan, Frances E. "The Subordinate('s) Plot: Petty Treason and the Forms of Domestic Rebellion." Shakespeare Quarterly 60.3 (1992): 317-340. JSTOR. 3 March 2009http://www.jstor.org/.

"Anno vicesimo primo Jacobi Regis, &c. an act to prevent the destroying and murthering of
bastard children." City of London. Printed by Samuel Roycroft. 1680. EEBO.
ASU Library, Boone, NC. 11 March 2009. http://eebo.chadwyck.com/home.

Brewer, Thomas. “The Bloudy Mother.” Nature’s Cruel Stepdames: Murderous Women in the
Street Literature of Seventeenth Century England. Ed. Susan C. Staub. Pittsburgh, PA:
Duquesne U.P., 2005. 240-255.

Dolan, Frances, E. Dangerous Familiars: representations of domestic crime in England, 1550-
1700. Itaca: Cornell U.P., 1994.

Eales, Jacqueline. Women in early modern England, 1550-1700. London: UCL Press, 1998.

Gowing, Laura. “Secret Births and Infanticide in Seventeenth-Century England.” Past and
Present. 156 (1997): 87-115. JSTOR. ASU Library, Boone, NC. 1 April 2009.
http://www.jstor.org/.

Shakespeare, William. Cymbeline. http://shakespeare.mit.edu/cymbeline/

Sharpe, J.A. and J.R. Dickinson. “Infanticide in Early Modern England: the Court of Great
Sessions at Chester, 1650-1800.” Infanticide: Historical Perspectives on Child Murder
and Concealment 1550-2000. Ed. Mark Jackson. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2002.

Staub, Susan C. Nature’s Cruel Stepdames: Murderous Women in the Street Literature of
Seventeenth Century England. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne U.P., 2005.

Another instance of infanticide in Early Modern England

Yet another pamphlet from the period entitled "A True and Perfect Relation of a most Horrid and Bloody Murther" demonstrates how murderous mothers were demonized and how their crimes were characterized as monstrous. This pamphlet which was printed in 1686 relates the story of Mary Philmore who drowned her infant son. The infant was nine weeks old and the mother had been ill recently and had also been in an altercation with her husband prior to her murderous actions. She was found later wandering the streets with no idea of where she was going or where she had been. She confessed her crime and was imprisoned until her trial date. The pamphlet doesn't relate her manner of execution or her confession but it does characterize the woman as a "desperate creature" and her actions are described as "inhuman". While the pamphlet doesn't relate all of the facts, it does a better job than most. The reader is able to tell from reading this pamphlet that all was not right with Mary Philmore, and her actions against her nine week old infant were the result of something that had gone terribly wrong. Unfortunately during a time when terms like postpartum depression were not yet known and did not exist, the only explanation for her actions would have been associated with the devil and evil. The author of this pamphlet even mentions that "the Devil still being busie with her to make it [the child] away". It would have been reasonable to assume during this period that the devil was the cause for such a horrifying action.

cited from:
"A True and Perfect Relation of a most Horrid and Bloody Murther"
Anon
London: 1686
EEBO (Early English Books Online)

"The murderous midwife..."

This is a completely unbelievable story of infanticide that occurred in Paris, but was written about in London in 1673. This midwife's house was searched after rumors circulated about her, and during the search the bodies of 62 infants were found amongst the contents of her privy. The author of this pamphlet was obviously as shocked as I was at this news and he states: "What wickedness and villainous imaginations hath this Age more universally afforded in Mortals than any other!" Apparently this horrific discovery caused him to believe, like many people today do, that the world must be near its end if things like this are happening. Unfortunately my research on infanticide did not uncover the truth about how stillborn babies were discarded or where they might have been placed by midwives, though mothers in most cases would bury their stillborn children. The text discusses the fact that this was a widely discussed story, so the text might be based on hearsay. The text also states that the bodies of the infants were in various states of decomposition, so they might have been collected over a long period of time, during which many women might have given birth to stillborn children. This midwife might have also been a helper for those unfortunate unwed women who had nowhere to turn. There is really no way to tell for sure because facts are few within these pamphlets, but this pamphlet does share many similarities with the other pamphlets that I've read. The events begin with gossip, the woman's house is searched by nosy neighbors, they search her privy (what a delightful job that would be), and then they execute her because they seem to have enough evidence to convict (though it didn't take much evidence in most cases). The reason that I chose to take a closer look at this pamphlet is because of the rather extreme manner of execution. This lady was placed in a cage with 16 wildcats and they were all roasted to death over an open flame! Can anyone say overkill?! My god, wouldn't one wildcat have done the job sufficiently, especially if it were being roasted? The only thing that I really can conclude after reading this pamphlet is that this is clearly exaggerated. I just can't believe that this could have happened, ever. In any case, it is obvious that the "wickedness and villainous imaginations" do not simply belong to the midwife. 16 wildcats! Roasted! My God!

Source:

"The Murderous Midwife, with her Roasted Punishment"

Anon

London: 1673

EEBO (Early English Books Online)

The Witch of Edmonton - the second half

Within the last half of this play the accused witch meets her end and so does Frank Thorney, but unfortunately Sir Arthur only has to pay a fine. I say unfortunately because he is the one that I wanted to see receive his comeuppance. Sadly, he faced no real consequences for his evil and Frank paid the price instead. The way that the play was set up made it difficult to determine who was really evil. There were at least three different categories within which the characters fell. Sir Arthur, Old Banks, and Frank Thorney all committed crimes against others of their own free will. Frank Thorney felt pushed to commit murder because he saw no other way, while Sir Arthur only wanted to cover up his past sins conveniently and continue to pursue Winnifride. Old Banks on the other hand was just an a**. He treated those around him as if they were unworthy of life, and was the first to make accusations against Sawyer simply because she fell outside of any categorical placement within society. Then of course there is a separate category of evil into which Sawyer, the devil dog, and possibly Young Banks fall. They are aware of an evil that isn't tangible. Young Banks isn't even certain of this evil until his conversation with the devil dog near the end of the play, and all three of these characters could be viewed as scapegoats for the tangible evil within society. Finally there is a category of completely innocent people which includes Somerton and Katherine. These two characters seem completely unaware of the evil that is going on around them and both are duped by the evil doer Frank. At one point within the play it seems as if Somerton might actually become yet another scapegoat. Fortunately this works itself out when Katherine discovers the bloody knife that had been used to kill her sister in Frank's coat.
Overall this play was a great read and it definitely made me think about the different ways that evil can present itself within society. Even today the things that people are most afraid of are the things that we can't recognize at first glance. Serial killers frighten us because they are generally so suave and unrecognizable. Terrorists are frightening because we are unable to identify them right away. The unforeseen danger is definitely the scariest. I'm certain that members of early modern society felt the same way. Of course they would be frightened to think that there were witches living among them. It's just terrible to think about how many innocent people might have been executed as scapegoats for unfortunate and coincidental events, and this play makes the reader think about that.

The Witch of Edmonton - the first half

This play by Thomas Dekker, John Ford and William Rowley makes the reader ponder the nature of evil. Although the play is about an accused witch, her part is minuscule compared with some of the other characters who appear numerous times within the play. Within the first half of the play Elizabeth Sawyer, the accused witch, has a few short appearances, while the main plot concerns many other characters. Within her parts she appears as a social outcast who seems to wish revenge on the characters who torment her. While her character does take part in behaviors related to witchcraft, she never really brings harm to anyone with her own hands and the only evil that is really evident is her communication with a devil dog who appears within several scenes prior to the occurrence of unfortunate events. The real evil within this play doesn't seem to be the witch. The real evil seems to be present in the other plots when Sir Arthur and Frank Thorney conspire individually to deceive their family and friends. These men aren't even those who Sawyer wishes to bewitch. Their evil is actually their own. It certainly makes one question where the real evil is within society. Within certain sections of the play evil appears as society itself, when Sawyer is being treated poorly prior to having done any harm.

The Roaring Girl - Part Two

I found this play absolutely delightful. I know I've already posted on the first part of the play, but the last half of the play is so interesting that I deemed it worthy of more discussion.
By the time the reader is half way through the play it's obvious that the main character Moll is meant to have stronger morals than any of the other characters. While she obviously crosses the line when it comes to the gender roles of the period, she doesn't cross any moral boundaries within the play. Unlike some of the other characters in the play, she doesn't lie or cheat. She also proves the true strength of her character when she maintains her morals even in the face of temptation. She simply does not waver.
The really interesting thing about Moll is that she is determined to do good by other people. She comes off looking like some type of early modern superhero, defending her friends from pickpockets, defending the honor of women, and helping Sir Alexander to see the error of his ways. All of this is quite comical because it is set against a plot full of characters who are weaving massive webs of deceit and who stay extremely busy plotting against one another and covering up their lies. Moll remains untouched by all of this deception though and even has time to leave the reader with a few moral lessons. The fact that she appears dressed as a woman in the final scene of the play might have even allowed the early modern audience to experience some relief, but I honestly don't think that she has any intentions of changing. She may appear to have changed in this final scene, but her thoughts are those of a modern day feminist. She makes it clear that she may never marry and that she may never change to suit those who find her so monstrous. Thomas Middleton and Thomas Dekker really won me over with the creation of such a character.

"Deeds against Nature and monsters by kinde"

This pamphlet by an anonymous author depicts yet another murderous mother. This woman's name is Marth Scambler, and she, unlike many of the other women I've read about, actually admits to killing her infant son. Another difference between this woman and many of the others that I've read about is that she was examined prior to her confession and conviction. The only other narrative of murderous women that mentions an examination is "Newes from the Dead", and even in this pamphlet the examination takes place only after the convicted woman has survived her execution. Although the convicted woman in this case admits her crime, and one can easily see how the crime might be considered detestable, the language of the literature demonizes her as if she isn't human. Within this pamphlet she is referred to as lascivious and monstrous, while her crime is described as heinous and unnatural. The author states that she is "another Caterpillar of nature, a creature more savage than a shee woolfe, more unnaturall than either bird or beast, for every creature hath a tender feeling of love to their young, except some few murtherous-minded strumpets" (4). The author then goes on to describe the crime, relating that she gave birth to a son, and then in order to hide the shame of having become pregnant out of wedlock, she "threw it downe unto a lothsome privy house, therein to give it an undecent grave" (4). The thing that I find interesting about all of these pamphlets is that these women are left with little choice. They have two options. They can keep their children and become outcasts with reputations for being whores, harlots, and indecent women; or they can murder their child and take the chance of avoiding any consequences. The reality within this society is that women are forced into a position which leaves them feeling as if they have no other option.

cited from:
Deeds against Nature and monsters by kinde
Anon
EEBO (Early English Books Online)